kankanaey culture and tradition

The council of elders, known as the Amam-a, are a group of old, married men expert in custom law and lead in the decision-making for the village. Initial productions were screened in church gatherings and other community events until demand called for distribution of VCD copies and further productions. Daily production in the Lepanto copper mine in Mankayan, which operated until the end of the war, reached 1,000 tons. Accessed 7 August. The allao, on the other hand, has a rectangular floor. Even in cases where such an agreement comes into force, this is resorted to mainly to preserve the wealth of the two families. The Algebra of the Weaving Patterns, Gong Music and Kinship System of the Kankana-ey of Mountain Province. At the middle of these two extremes is an intermediate class of independent property holders called komidwa (second rank). The Kankanaey are also dispersed in small percentages all over the Philippine archipelago. In the Philippines, the Kankanaey, Bontok, Ifugao, and other Cordillera groups were integrated under the new politico-military dispensation. The Kankanaey differ in the way they dress. An individuals choice of his or her marriage partner is not subject to disapproval from the parents, who recognize the right of daughter or son to make a choice. These stories are called kapia (prayer). http://car.neda.gov.ph/. http://www.census.gov.ph/content/. The celebration is held for one day and one night with preparations of food, water, and tapuy. Manila: Central Bank of the Philippines, Ayala Museum. AND BEGNAS: Northern Kankanaey Cultural Rites for Well-being and Solidarity. Santos, Soliman, Jr., and Paz Verdades Santos. Stone is used as pavement around the house. However, most of the gold gathered by the Spaniards did not come from mining but from either the collection of it as tribute or the looting of the gold and heirlooms from the Cordillera people. The settlements in the south seem to belong to the historic period, as evidenced by the small acreage built for rice terrace culture. There are three main house types: the binangiyan, the apa or inapa, and the allao. Sugarcane and tobacco used to be cultivated for domestic consumption but with the shift to cash economy, most fields are now planted with fruits and vegetables for commercial sale. [8], The Southern Kankanaey are one of the ethnolinguistic groups in the Cordillera. It involves laying the deceased in their homes for 3 days. The chanting is a drawling, rather monotonous tune, with words which either have no meaning at all or whose meaning has been obscured by the passage of time, and yet are understood in their entirety because the themes are well known from past and continuing retelling. Its lyrics are set to the melody of Brian Whites Someone Elses Star.. Atom [9], Musical instruments include the tubular drum (solibao), brass or copper gongs (gangsa), Jew's harp (piwpiw), nose flute (kalaleng), and a bamboo-wood guitar (agaldang). If the pregnant wife decides to abide by the traditional manner of childbirth, the husband stays under the house, prepared for any eventuality, while his wife is being assisted upstairs. INDIGENOUS CRAFTS AND CULTURE by Genevieve Balance-Kupang They are in southern Luzon, too, where there are 282 in Lucena City, Quezon province. There has been greater upwardas well as downwardmobility in Kankanaey society. On the day of the marriage, the relatives of both parties offer gifts to the couple, and a pig is butchered to have its bile inspected for omens which would show if they should go on with the wedding. the cordillera. This barangay is a mountain village near the municipality of Bakun in the province of Benguet. After eight months, they left the United States on 13 November with a group of Visayans and Tinguian. The traditional garment for the Kankanaey male is the wanes (G-string). Traditionally, the man is expected to provide all the needs of the family, but women are increasingly contributing to the family finances through employment either in their hometowns or elsewhere. Wild animal meat such as deer, boar, civet cats and lizards are salted and dried under the sun to preserve it. The coffins are small because the bodies inside the coffins are in a fetal position. Author/s: Edgardo B. Maranan (1994) / Updated by Gonzalo A. Campoamor II, Rosario Cruz-Lucero, and Ruth Tindaan (2018), URL: https://epa.culturalcenter.gov.ph/1/2/2356/. A pigpen may be found in one of the end corners. Only a person of means can afford the amount of food consumed. Native priests (mansip-ok, manbunong, and mankotom) supervise rituals, read omens, heal the sick, and remember genealogies. There is social stratification in Kankanaey society. The Bago Ballad of Delnagen and Annusan Lumawig. Philippine Studies 42 (2): 217-246. The everyday getap is white with indigo-blue bands. As a result, the total gold production of the country reached almost half a million pesos per year between 1907 and 1911, around half of which was from Benguet alone. 1989. Kankanaey communities are among the ethnolinguistic groups whose ritual and ceremonies are studied.5 In the Cordillera, the indigenous peoples have been influenced by the so-called megalithic culture complex, relating to or denoting prehistoric cultures. For the southern Kankanaey, the pinading are the mountain spirits; the bilig are the field and forest spirits; and the dagas are the house spirits. On this a pig is butchered and offered to the guardian deities of the village. Mo manokmi abu, matago tauwaday panbiagmi. In Bagnen, Bauko, Mt Province, the phases of agricultural cycle are the sama or sowing of seeds, starting in August; toned or transplanting in December; kames or weeding and putting up a kilkilaw (scarecrow), starting February of the next year; lugam or cleaning of the kabiti (stone wall), starting in April; and latab or harvesting, starting in June. The song is a dialogue between the women of the village and a girl, an outsider, who has come to marry a boy from the village. The girl usually agrees to the contest because she already likes the boy. As the shaman goes about her search, she recites a prayer in Kankanaey, which translates into English thus: Paypay, let us go home to the village, it is a warm place to dwell in; confound this spirits house where you are dwelling, our house in the village is better, it is a warm place to dwell in. Since 1992, Igorot filmmakers have been representing themselves in their own language. Disease is attributed to the workings of malevolent spirits or angered deities. Praying over it, he implores Kabunian to help reveal the cause of sickness and the type of sacrifice required to cure it. The village elders may decide to hold the rites after the observance of a bagat (big feast) by a family to regain luck for the community. Camote delicacies include (1) makimpit which are dried camotes, (2) boko which are camote sliced into thin pieces that could be steamed (sinalopsop) or cooked as in and sweetened with sugar (inab-abos-sang). Idauwatmoi masangbo, tamo matagokami pangiyaan di ibamin dakami; tamo dakayo ay kabunian waday pangiyaan min dakayo; tamo anakmi waday matago ya waday pangiyaan min daka yo. A History of the Mountain Province by Howard T. Fry . Traditionally, the Kankanaey village was set on the hump of a hill whose elevation afforded a natural defensive advantage against neighboring groups. Sagada Social Studies Series 13. The other person, hearing the mans laugh, also laughed. This is made of several broad planks laid together above the ground, instead of stone blocks set on the earth. Formal political leadership is a modern-day phenomenon, and it comes in the form of bureaucratic placement in the national-local government system. Five days after the burial of the dead, those who participated in the burial take a bath in a river together, butcher a chicken, then offer a prayer to the soul of the dead. Most of the films are narratives about the clash between Igorot traditions and Christian beliefs, the influence of outsiders, the trappings and trends of modern living, and the desire for better living conditions. Padpad is the wrenching away of a sick persons soul from the clutches of a spirit; paypay is a search for the whereabouts of the wandering soul. These influences include the location of the burials . In Central Luzon, there are 4,980 Kakanaey in Nueva Ecija; 18,645 in San Fernando City in La Union; and 3,206 in Tarlac. The father opens the granary, and takes out as many bundles as required for the period of celebration. Sagada: Igorot Study Center. Death and Beyond: Death & Burial Rituals & Other Practices & Beliefs of the Igorots of Sagada, Mountain Province, Philippines by Dinah Elma Piluden-Omengan (2004). There are two phases in this ritual: the padpad and the paypay. Make what we plant also to live; beans to live; camotes to live; to be for keeping us alive. Apart from the binangiyan, apa, and allao, there is the inalteb, which is not indigenous but rather similar to a house in the lowlands. Because the foothills and coastal plains of the Ilocos region lie across the boundary to the west, the Kankanaey areas are contiguous to the lowlands. Afterward, the American colonial administration saw the rise of a new political and economic elite, with new sources of power and prestige, even as old ones were closed. The basic dance step consists of the stomping of the left foot. The baknang are the primary landowners to whom the abiteg render their services to. . Kankanay Ceremonies. American Archaeology and Ethnology 15 (4): 343-384. Moss, Charles R. 1920. Most of the northern Kankanaey are located in the southwestern part of Mountain Province and inhabit the municipalities of Besao, Sagada, Tadian, Bauko, and Sabangan. Eugenio, Damiana L., ed. In paypay, the shaman clutches a chicken under her arm, and holds a winnowing basket in one hand and a stick in the other. Armed thus, she goes from place to place, even entering other peoples houses, as she tries to look for the sick persons wayward soul. The fact also that headhunting, one of the major decision-making concerns in the council of elders, has entirely disappeared from Kankanaey practice may serve to explain the disappearance of the at-ato. One male dancer uses the blanket and the other plays the gangsa, as both turn and twist around, coordinating their movements with the object of pursuit. Moreover, the Benguet area had some of the largest gold and ore deposits, and the Kankanaey and Ibaloy who had settled here had been panning and digging for gold long before the Spaniards arrived on the islands. A Kankanaey Igorot from the Cordillera in the Philippines, Minnie Degawan is Director of the Indigenous and Traditional Peoples Program at Conservation International, based at its international headquarters in Virginia, United States. The binangiyan is the durable example of a functional, all-purpose, practical indigenous dwelling, with plenty of living and storage space, sufficient protection against the rain, and insulation against the cold. Kankana-ey. The eruption of war between Spanish and American forces and the subsequent war of independence waged by Filipino revolutionaries against the new colonial forces drew the involvement of the Igorot people. Some believe he is a son of a goddess. In Benguet, the popularity of these films may be discerned in the vegetable transport vehicles that are marked with signs derived from these films. The parents then talk about the terms of the marriage, including the bride price to be paid by the mans family. [12], The more common burial custom of the Kankanaey is for coffins to be tucked into crevices or stacked on top of each other inside limestone caves. Some of those who have managed to retain their traditional upper-class standing may still be practicing the duties of the classic kadangyan, although in altered forms. Swinging songs are rather short and are sung by men or women. Older generations of Kankanaey used to hunt deer and wild boar in forests, and catch eels and crabs in rivers. The Kankanaey people are an Indigenous peoples of the Northern Philippines. During the American occupation, they were the primary choice, as the local elite, for filling up high positions in the colonial bureaucracy. It became a man. Annusan revived him with a sponge bath, a massage, and a prayer. Part of Kankanaey cosmology is the story of how the spirits dwelling on earth actually came from the descendants of two mortal beings, Lumawig and Bangan, the first creatures on earth. Close to the ground is a wooden platform stretching out to the eaves. This head became the thunder. They also used the at-ato as their sleeping quarters. Some Notes on House Styles in a Kankanay Village. Asian Studies 3 (1): 41-54. Published September 12, 2008 4:41pm. Masferres black-and-white photographs, produced in print and postcards, were taken from 1934 to 1956. [1], Recent DNA studies show that the Kankanaey along with the Atayal people of Taiwan, were most probably among the original ancestors of the Lapita people and modern Polynesians. Like in hanging coffins, the location depends on the status of the deceased as well as the cause of death. Two main approaches to marriage are customary: parental arrangement, which is the old tradition, and courtship, which has increasingly gained favor among the new generation. The girls who stayed at the ebgan were visited by their suitors who lived in their own dormitory. Llamzon, Teodoro A. A specific god is consulted about the nature and cure of the particular sickness. The aristocratic lineage of the kadangyan is traced, through oral tradition, to the very figure of Lumawig, the cultural hero of many Igorot groups who they honor through the bayas, which was a type of caao that validated the kadangyans stature. There is no more pure Southern Kankana-ey culture because of culture change that modified the customs and traditions of the people. The Kankanan-ey dominate the northwest and speaks the kakali, a dialect similar to the dialect of the Mountain Province and akin to Iloko. [4][5][6] They might even reflect a better genetic match to the original Austronesian mariners than the aboriginal Taiwanese, as the latter were influenced by more recent migrations to Taiwan, whereas the Kankanaey are thought to have remained an isolated relict population. Their society is divided into two classes: the kadangyan (rich), who are the leaders and who inherit their power through lineage or intermarriage, and the kado (poor). They wanted to put life into these pair by making them laugh. Lumawig then made a head for the lower half of his childs body. Worcester, Dean C. 1906. Atawu culture and tradition. In Philippine cinema, commercial feature films that go as far back as the 1950s have included images of the Igorot in movies like Ifugao, 1954; Igorota (Igorot Woman), 1968; Mumbaki, 1996; Ngayong Nandito Ka Na (Now that You Are Here); 2004, and Dont Give Up On Us, 2005. The tattoo art of central Benguet comes in exquisite patterns of curved and straight lines, with designs executed in indigo blue. This article is about Kankanaey people. The Culture of the Bontoc Igorot by Carmencita Cawed (1972). The futility of their search led to the Royal Audiencias decision to discontinue all subsequent expeditions. 1986. Another hereditary position is that of the mamade or mamadur, who can be replaced if the rituals he performs fail to produce the good harvest prayed for by the community. War and headhunting exploits, from which the elite drew prestige and status, ceased to be normal activities a long time ago. They also produce wooden bowls, shields, and vases with covers that are usually carved with human or lizard figures on top, on the sides, or underneath. Negotiations between the government and the CPLA led to the formation of the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) in July 1987. Hornedo, Florentino H. 1994. Weaving Symmetry of the Philippine Northern Kankana-ey. Bridges Towson 2012 Proceedings, edited by Robert Bosch, Douglas McKenna, and Reza Sarhangi, 267-274. Their earnings are either spent for education or sent home to support family members for the purchase of household items such as metal tools, kitchenware, cloth, hats, sugar, and salt. The sickness in the body of a person is usually related to an analogous sickness of a character in a myth. The rites observed in connection with the agricultural cycle are deemed indispensable because the whole success of planting and harvesting, that is, survival itself, may depend entirely on such observance. Close to their dwellings, the Kankanaey maintain little orchards that supply fruit for their consumption as well as vegetable gardens and sweet potato patches. Work for us to become rich so that while we live there will be the giving of meat to us by our companions; so that you the gods will have things given to you; so that our children will have life; so that there will be gifts for you. Gatan is a mythological hero who is always successful in his undertakings and enjoys the protection of Kabunian. Gold mining, particularly in the Benguet area, determined Kankanaey life in a very basic way. Handbook of Philippine Language Groups. VVM films that are in the Kankanaey language are Sabong di Kada (Flower of Kada), 1998; Adawag Ina (Mothers Plight), 1998; Din Sungbat (The Answer), 2003; Kedaw (Ask), 2007; and Din Pantaulian (The Returning), 2008. 2000. In need of much needed resources, the imperial forces headed straight to the provinces copper mines, including those in Mankayan. The tiktiko are either zigzag patterns representing mountains and forests, or crisscross patterns depicting rice mortars. The themes of the day-eng would either be tragic, heroic, or comic. Funeral practices and burial customs in the Philippines, "2010 Census of Population and Housing, Report No. Wild roots, honey and fruits are also gathered to supplement diet. Even under the old system of parental arrangement, the Kankanaey rarely enter into a parental agreement when the children are still below the age at which they can make their own choices. So they made a chicken jump by pulling out its feathers. H. Otley Beyer believed they originated from a migrating group from Asia who landed on the coasts of Pangasinan before moving to Cordillera. The Kankanaeys skirt reaches only down to the knee and is thus shorter than that of the Benguet Ibaloy. Tamong is a dance meant to expedite the healing of the sick. The manabig (wise old men) were keepers of the lore and traditions and were expected to define correct custom, interpret procedure in caaos, remember significant matters from the past. Since a manabig was called upon to solve personal and communal problems, he was accorded deep respect, and his services were compensated with meat, rice wine, or both. It consists of a solitary wooden post about 1.3 meters in height, with large white stones laid on the ground surrounding it. Thus, in asking for more, they wish to be able to share more. The coffins are placed underneath natural overhangs, either on natural rock shelves/crevices or on projecting beams slotted into holes dug into the cliff-side. Here is a short tale of how the thunder and the lightning came to be: Long ago, Lumawig came down to earth and married a girl who had many sisters. They live in the mountainous regions of . A whole village or a family financially capable of throwing a feast takes responsibility for the holding of big and elaborate rites. Bagamaspad, Anavic, and Zenaida Hamada-Pawid, compiled. Japanese forces during World War II penetrated through the Mountain Province in February 1942. Original prints of his photographs are in the Bontoc Museum, National Museum of the Philippines, Smithsonian Institute in the United States, and the National Gallery of Australia. Tayaw is another dance performed for the same purpose, accompanied by the offering of sacrificial pigs to Kabunian. This is due to the belief that people should leave the world in the same position as they entered it, a tradition common throughout the various pre-colonial cultures of the Philippines. The Kankanaey build rice terraces which have become sufficient sources of food. In the Ilocos provinces, there are 1,724 in Ilocos Norte and 17,232 in Ilocos Sur. Sip-ok, in which the diviner takes a bottle upside down, and puts budbud (yeast) on its bottom. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. 1901. Finally, the Kankana-ey are one of the few tribes who still practice a way of living more common in the old days, although is fast disappearing as well. The carved images in their homes only serve decorative purposes. In Kankanaey tales, the most recurring characters are Gatan, Bangan, Lawigan, and Bugan. Some of the former American soldiers returned to the mountains in search of the gold they had heard so much about. Gadang. The kadangyan occupy the topmost rank as hereditary aristocrats by virtue of their landholdings, capacity to conduct ritual activities, and other evidence of material wealth. [8], The Northern Kankana-eys believe in many supernatural beliefs and omens, and in gods and spirits like the anito (soul of the dead) and nature spirits. Men also wear a woven blanket for an upper garment and sometimes a headband, usually colored red like the G-string. Some of the producers of such music videos are Kankanaey overseas workers in Japan, whose songs speak of longing for home and the challenges of employment abroad. Aguilar-Cario, Ma. The themes of Kankanaey tales appear to be the following: marriage and family life, social customs and traditions, religious values, beliefs and practices, and tales of magic and imagination. Proof is the extensiveness of their rice terraces, which must have taken a considerable period to build. Today, the rituals are still practiced by the Kankanaey but many have made modern concessions to update these traditions. The getap is kept in place with a inandolo, also called wakes and bakget, a belt 7.5 to 15 centimeters wide, made of tightly woven cotton yarn and wound twice around the waist. It is reserved only for distinguished or honorable leaders of the community. Threads of different colors are woven into the base threads to add patterns and other colors. [9], Gold and copper mining is abundant in Mankayan. They also sport tattoos which serve as body ornaments and garments. They practice parental marriage. On the 3rd day, the deceased is made to sit on a chair, often strapped to it to keep the body upright. Music videos have been made available on DVDs and YouTube. During the Spanish colonial period, they were recruited as district presidente or village konsehal and, upon retirement, earned the title kapitan. The Spanish influence however, highly affected the religious traditions and customs in the areas surrounding large trade cities and the capital. Some of these rituals are pedit (to bring good luck to newlyweds), pasang (cure sterility and sleeping sickness, particularly drowsiness) and pakde (cleanse community from death-causing evil spirits). These processes actually began with Spanish colonial exactions before the 20th century, as well as with the introduction of new diseases and epidemics, hence requiring frequent propitiatory ritual sacrifices, which drained the old kadangyans economic resources. It used to be located right in the middle of a settlement. The Northern Kankanaey or Applai live in Sagada and Besao, western Mountain province, and constitute a linguistic group. The men wore a G-string as it is called but it is known as wanes to the Kankanaeys of Besao and Sagada. The forebears of the northern Kankanaey started building rice terraces near the villages. the man brings logs or bundled firewood as a sign of his sincerity, the woman works on the mans fathers field with a female friend. . This article is from the CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art Digital Edition. These productions have similar themes as those produced by VVM, but other groups have ventured into generic themes that do not particularly take up matters of ethnic identity. They make do with whatever inferior food they can avail for themselves or earn their keep by working for others or, as in the case of the Benguet Kankanaey, engage in mine-related activities. The earliest recorded reference to gold panning by the Kankanaey was in 1545, when oral history mentioned a girl named Damya who used to wash gold at Labang (Habana 2000, 462). Northern Kalinga culture groups include Banao, Buaya, Dao-angan, Gubang, Mabaca, Poswoy, Salogsog, Ammacian, Ballayangon, Limos, Pinukpuk, Wagud, Allay / Kalakkad, Biga, Gamonang, Gobgob, Guilayon, Nanong, and Tobog. National Economic and Development Authority. The young man then informed the womans parents about their decision. Manteneng is a ritual that begins the planting phase. Hunting and fishing have been severely affected because of the continuing denudation of the once vast timberlands of the Cordillera forests. The southern Kankanaey are found in the municipalities of Mankayan, Bakun, Kibungan, Buguias, and the upper half of Kapangan in Benguet. They also hunt and fish small fishes and eel which is a special delicacy when cooked. The northern Kankanaey occupy a region that averages 2,000 meters above sea level. These processes would include Christianization, urbanization, political modernization, and integration of a highland agricultural society to a market economy. 1981. Among the southern Benguet Igorot, this festival is called chungas. If the parents agree to their marriage, they exchange work for a day (dok-ong and ob-obbo), i.e. Tarektek (woodpecker) is a courtship dance that imitates the movements of the bird, with a blanket as prop. On The Cordillera. Their names are recited and invoked by the Kankanaey in various rituals so that they may intercede for people and facilitate the granting of favors needed or desired. Demetrio, Francisco, Gilda Cordero-Fernando, and Fernando Zialcita. The Kankanaey perform a ritual to effect the return of a soul which has wandered off on account of sickness. The opening of a baeg (granary) by a family for rice pounding is an event with its own ritual. House-building is entirely a mans work, but he gets assistance from kin or neighbors. Another reason proposed is that the salutary climate of the Cordillera highlands, with its lush green vegetation and other natural riches, may have attracted the ancestors of the present mountain dwellers to go beyond the malaria-ridden jungle belt that stops at the 1,000-meter line of the mountains. The supernatural world of the Kankanaey is replete with male and female god figures, as well as spirit-beings who comprise a hierarchy of deities under one supreme entity called Kabunian, creator of all beings and living things in the world. At the beginning, the VVM was a one-man outfit, with Dangpa performing most of the tasks of film production. Since marriages have always tended to take place within socially homogenous circles, class distinctions have been stabilized over time. The People and Art of the Philippines. Aside from mimetic dances, another form of proto-drama are the rituals where the shaman assumes the role of a spirit or a god. On the other hand, the Kankanaey and Ibaloy shared the mineral deposits of Suyoc, Tabio, Acupan and Antamok. While holding up the stone, he or she calls out the names of various spirits. There are two kinds of mourning songs: soso, which are used on the occasion of a persons death or burial, and the dasay, sung when a person is about to breathe his last. The Kankanaeys may also differ in some words like egay or aga, maid or maga. On the day of the feast, men with bolo and spears come out of their houses and proceed to the village borders, to put up barricades across all entrances. There are sudsud for children, told to them by elders for their amusement. A variant of the getap called kinteg is indigo black, with white-and-blue bands. This caao or feast, the most important festival in northern Kankanaey society, is hosted by the kadangyan and involves the slaughter of many animals. By 1929, Benguet was yielding 86% of the total 6.7 million peso gold production and 92% of the 73.7 million pesos just before World War II. Some swinging songs are in the form of a dialogue or verbal and vocal contests between a girl who sits upon a swing and a young man who stands nearby. Other buildings include the granary ( agamang ), male clubhouse ( dap-ay or abong ), and female dormitory ( ebgan ). Mutual respect is observed by husband and wife, although decision making in most matters is patricentric. They consist of an exchange between a man and a woman, or between a group of men and a group of women. Crabs are also caught to make tengba, a gravy of pounded rice mixed with crabs, salted and placed in jars to age. The woven material comes in long, narrow pieces that are sewn together, the number of seams dependent on the purpose for which it would be used. Foreign country music melodies have been adapted for Kankanaey lyrics that may or may not have anything to do with the original. Rattan, which used to grow in abundance in forests surrounding Kankanaey villages, is still available and provides the basket makers one of two primary materialsthe other being bamboofor executing intricate, creative, and meticulous designs on their baskets. The tattoo is pricked on the breasts and arms of men and women. Just like their northern counterparts, there are also two varieties of rice namely kintoman and saranay or bayag. Nobody is allowed to leave at anytime throughout the day, to prevent loss of luck.. The bandala, worn by the men, is a dark blue blanket with white lines. Some incorporate footages of cultural events in the Cordillera and videos of local and foreign locations. The Kankanaey are also in Mindanao, 710 of them being in Lanao del Norte. They are very superstitious and believe that performing rituals and ceremonies help deter misfortunes and calamities. But this parental arrangement can be set aside anytime by the children when they come of age. The Benguet people-Ibaloys, Kankanaey, Kalanguya and Karaos- have similar beliefs, traditions and culture. . Knowing little, if at all, about prospecting, they succeeded in finding the gold either by befriending the Igorot or by marrying into kadangyan or baknang (traditional aristocrat) families who already had control of the gold mines.
Sorry To Jump In The Conversation Email, Articles K